Lamentablemente los autores que se ocupan de la genealogía italiana no usan un criterio único al investigar estrategias. Muchos de ellos no poseen un genuino conocimiento de la historia de Italia más allá de la insistente repetición del mito de Garibaldi y otros conceptos erróneos similares, algunos de los cuales pueden influir negativamente en la perspectiva del historiador de familia. Un ejemplo de esto es la impresión de que el Norte de Italia siempre fue más rico que el Sur, y que esta diferencia económica impulsó a millones de sureños a emigrar. En realidad, Nápoles era la más próspera y populosa de todas las ciudades de Italia hasta su anexión al nuevo Reino de Italia en 1860. Por ese entonces, la segunda ciudad más rica no era Roma, Turín o Milán, sino Palermo. Fue parcialmente a causa de la relativa pobreza del Norte que en las proximidades de 1870 la mayoría de los emigrantes italianos proviniera de sus regiones. En el entorno de ese período la planificada economía del Reino de Italia comenzó a favorecer al Norte a expensas del Sur, y hacia 1890 la mayoría de los emigrantes provenía de esta zona, la cual -ya en esa época- estaba menos industrializada que el Norte.

Historia y cultura en su Genealogía
Cuando Ud. empiece a investigar sus raíces itálicas, es conveniente que visite una biblioteca pública donde conseguir algunos libros que le ayudarán en el intento de ubicar a sus ancestros dentro del propio contexto histórico. Los más importantes y a su vez altamente recomendables, son los referidos a la Historia Medieval y Moderna. Ningún trabajo por sí sólo puede considerarse perfecto, pero vale la pena leer unos cuantos. Los libros de Dennis Mack Smith son confiables pese a que reflejan algunos prejuicios extranjeros. Sir Harold Acton produjo buenos trabajos sobre el Reino de Nápoles; los de Benedetto Croce sobre el mismo tópico son algo fantasiosos. John Julius Norwich y Steven Runciman escribieron sobre Historia Medieval y sus trabajos constituyen verdaderos hitos. “El Leopardo” de Giuseppe di Lampedusa -aunque ficción- permite una profunda observación de las intimidades de la sociedad italiana del Sur en el siglo XIX. Gerre Mangione y Gay Talese han escrito acerca de la experiencia de los inmigrantes italianos en los Estados Unidos con extensivas investigaciones en Italia. Son indispensables los aún no superados trabajos de Luigi Barzini sobre las actitudes de los italianos, y el libro de Claire Sterling sobre el crimen organizado, es una ventana virtual hacia los hábitos que hoy en día delinean las características del Sur. También son invalorables en cualquier estudio sobre la historia tirolesa los trabajos referidos al Imperio Austríaco. Cuanto más se conoce de la región en donde vivieron sus antepasados, mucho más fácil resulta conocer su forma de vida. Tampoco desdeñe la historia local. Esta brinda información sobre los lugares donde habitaron sus ancestros y aunque ellos no estén expresamente mencionados en la historia general, tal vez hayan desempeñado un rol en la de su pueblo o ciudad. La veracidad en la investigación genealógica italiana depende de muchas cosas, la más importante de las cuales es el conocimiento de la lengua italiana. Esto lo habilita para interpretar más fácilmente los registros y le permite leer los trabajos históricos italianos que no están disponibles en su traducción inglesa. Un modo excelente para empezar a aprender el italiano es siguiendo un curso de iniciación. También vale la pena mencionar que a veces es útil conocer los dialectos regionales aunque la mayor parte de las anotaciones en Italia están escritas en italiano (toscano) y latín. Aún así, habida cuenta de las diferencias regionales, puede resultar conveniente estudiar otras lenguas además de la italiana: francés para ciertos archivos piamonteses, alemán para los del Tirol, etc.

La etnología es la ciencia social que examina y compara cuestiones tales como costumbres, vestimenta, religión, cocina, música y lenguaje. Ella distingue italianos de japoneses y americanos de australianos. En razón de que “Italia” existe como un estado nacional sólo desde aproximadamente 1860, los factores etnológicos también sirven para distinguir a toscanos de sicilianos, lombardos de calabreses y sardos de apulianos. Etnología es lo que hace piamonteses a sus antepasados del Piamonte y sicilianos a sus ancestros de Sicilia. La forma en que ellos rendían culto, vestían, trabajaban y llamaban a sus hijos, reflejan características etnológicas. Las normas etnológicas nos ayudan a conocer a los remotos antepasados a quienes nunca pudimos tratar. Estas generalidades no son “estereotipos”.

Sí, los estereotipos realmente existen, pero están referidos a otras disciplinas, no a la historia. Por ejemplo existe el estereotipo de que los italianos tienen cabellos y ojos negros y piel olivácea, en tanto que los cabellos rubios y los ojos azules son verdaderas anomalías. Pero en realidad son muchos los italianos que tienen ojos claros y son pelirrojos o rubios, especialmente en el Sur, donde en la Edad Media gobernaron longobardos y normandos que aportaron tales rasgos físicos. Otro estereotipo frecuente es el de que todos los inmigrates italianos llegados a América eran pobres o iletrados. Es cierto que muchos sufrían tales condiciones pero también es verdad que una buena cantidad pertenecía a una sólida clase media (calificados artesanos, mercaderes,etc.) y es probable que algunos hayan sido confundidos con “iletrados” simplemente porque no podían leer o escribir en inglés. Como corolario de esta apreciación equivocada se generó el estereotipo de que los inmigrantes del siglo XIX eran todos campesinos desposeídos, cuando la verdad está constituída por el hecho de que muchas de esas familias eran dueñas de sus propios hogares o por lo menos de una parcela de tierra; nosotros tenemos conocimiento de estas circunstancias porque los registros censales de posesión de tierras (catastro) que datan del siglo XVI están llenos de referencias a italianos comunes propietarios de bienes inmuebles.

Asimismo, con el propósito de desalentar lo que se considera como estereotipos “negativos”, algunas organizaciones étnicas italianas (fuera de la Italia) prefieren fomentar sus propias concepciones de lo que constituye la “identidad italiana” aunque tales ideas no siempre reflejan los hechos históricos o sociológicos verdaderos. La monarquía italiana, la mafia, el pacto de acero y las canosas viudas octogenarias vestidas totalmente de negro, son sólo algunas de las realidades que muchos integrantes de esas organizaciones quisieran borrar de la historia italiana. No permita que hagan desaparecer la genuina cultura italiana del esquema de su historia familiar ni tampoco que le digan qué o quienes fueron sus antepasados italianos.

Comenzar con los antecedentes domésticos
A diferencia de la mayoría de las disciplinas históricas, la investigación genealógica usualmente comienza en el presente y se dirige hacia atrás en busca del pasado. Si Ud. desea trazar su linaje y ya han transcurrido varias generaciones desde que sus ancestros abandonaron Italia, debe establecer con claridad el lugar y fecha de nacimiento o casamiento en Italia de su antepasado emigrante. Es posible que en el camino de sus averiguaciones Ud. descubra otras interesantes informaciones sobre su establecimiento en el nuevo país. Sin embargo, su objetivo principal debe ser el de obtener detalles biográficos seguros que faciliten la búsqueda en los registros italianos. Tal vez Ud. ya sepa donde y cuando nació su antepasado italiano. Si es así, la información de inmigración le resultará interesante para el conocimiento de la historia familiar. Antes de que consulte los registros microfilmados de inmigrantes, antiguos censos y listas de pasajeros de barcos, pregúntele a los miembros más viejos de la familia acerca de detalles sobre la vida de sus familiares en Italia. Los datos que obtenga pueden no ser siempre totalmente seguros, pero alguna información puede ser fundamental al proporcionarle referencias geográficas y tal vez le ahorren mucho tiempo y esfuerzo. También es muy útil saber dónde fue naturalizado su ancestro.

Introducción a los registros italianos
Desde que mucho se ha escrito sobre anotaciones notariales, censos y registros militares, aún si alguno puede contener serios errores, es necesario dejar en claro el grado de confianza que los genealogistas otorgan a estos elementos. Los registros primarios a consultar en la investigación genealógica italiana son las actas de nacimiento, bautismo y matrimonio. Las de fallecimiento -aunque también pueden ser consideradas “primarias”- son menos confiables que las de nacimiento y matrimonio aunque se debe tener presente la posibilidad de anotaciones de nacimiento demoradas.

En la mayoría de las regiones sureñas (el antiguo Reino de las Dos Sicilias) y en algunas del Norte (tales como Parma), existen datos estadísticos desde los comienzos del 1800. En los demás lugares (en la mayor parte del ex Reino de Cerdeña, el Gran Ducado de Toscana, el Estado Papal, etc.) tales registros civiles fueron instituidos recién en las proximidades de 1860. Los registros civiles (estadísticas de vida) son invalorables; típicamente contienen profesiones, edades aproximadas y otras informaciones no disponibles en las viejas anotaciones primarias consultadas por los genealogistas, particularmente las actas parroquiales.

No obstante, la ausencia de registro con estadísticas de vida significa que, para los períodos anteriores a 1860, no tendremos más opción que confiar en las anotaciones parroquiales. Es raro que existan censos de registros parroquiales locales (stato delle anime) y cuando los hay, generalmente se refieren a la última parte del siglo diecinueve. En la mayor parte de las circunstancias los registros secundarios sirven para suministrar detalles particulares que pueden faltar en otros lados, o para explicar estilos de vida familiares (posesiones, profesiones, etc.). Cuando existen estos elementos secundarios (censos de tierras y aforos, registros de servicio militar y de heráldica-nobiliaria, actas notariales, etc.) suelen ser considerados como “primarios”, pero sólo en caso de no haber los antes mencionados registros parroquiales y que las estadísticas vitales no existan , no hubieran sido preservadas o, por lo que fuera, resulten inaccesibles.

¿Inaccesibles? Acceder a los archivos parroquiales en Italia es notoriamente dificultoso y muy pocos de sus registros han sido microfilmados. En algunos casos, conseguir el acceso a esos archivos se convierte en un ejercicio burocrático que demanda meses y aún años de negociaciones. Abrumados por solicitudes llegadas por correo requiriéndoles asistencia genealógica gratuita, los recargados sacerdotes italianos se muestran renuentes a malgastar su tiempo en satisfacer tales demandas o aún en responder la mayoría de las cartas.

Bajo los auspicios de la Iglesia de los Santos de los Ultimos Días (mormones), y a través de un centro de historia familiar, han sido microfilmados algunos registros estadísticos de vida que pueden estar a su alcance, lo que obviamente supone que Ud. puede leer los historiales referidos. Aunque Ud. pudiera leerlos, el típico investigador debe llenar el vacío entre el nacimiento de un antepasado inmigrante (llegado cerca de 1890 por ejemplo) y los años próximos a 1860, época desde la que, por lo general, están disponibles las estadísticas de registros de vida. Ante ello tal vez sea necesario ponerse en contacto con la oficina de tales estadísticas del pueblo o ciudad natal de su antepasado en pos de información que facilite su investigación.

Aunque generalmente los oficiales del registro civil son renuentes a realizar una búsqueda de esos datos, ellos le pueden suministrar un extracto del acta de nacimiento de su ancestro (incluyendo los nombres de los padres), siempre que Ud. les proporcione la fecha y nombre exactos. Las normas legales sobre privacidad prohiben la expedición de certificados contemporáneos (personas que pueden estar vivas) a terceras partes.

En Italia, las estadísticas vitales y otros registros, donde existen, pueden ser consultados directamente en la oficina regional del Archivo de Estado Civil, corrientemente ubicado en la capital provincial. Sin embargo usted debería hablar algo de italiano si tiene la esperanza de comunicarse con los funcionarios del archivo y asegurarse que los registros de su interés se hallan efectivamente en tal archivo. Recuerde que los horarios y festividades en Italia, difieren de los de América.

Comprensión de los registros italianos
Existen publicaciones que pueden ayudarle suministrándole estrategias y métodos de investigación pero son demasiado detallados para ser expuestos aquí. No obstante, es importante que Ud. las lea críticamente considerando también la información adquirida de otras fuentes porque -por las razones ya expuestas anteriormente- pocas de estas publicaciones tienen un grado de certeza absoluta. Este es un muy buen consejo aplicable a todos los que quieran llevar a cabo una investigación sobre la historia familiar italiana. Más aún, cada bosquejo de investigación es único. Así, la información que tiene en cuenta los hechos históricos de interés periférico para los genealogistas, se halla mejor tratada en ciertos trabajos relacionados con el Siglo XVII, el Renacimiento (Movimiento de Unificación), y del mismo modo, otros por el estilo. Ciertas identificaciones que aparecen en algunos de estos libros están extraídas de “registros napoleónicos” y otros documentos de muy variada naturaleza y origen.

Transcripción, traducción y presentación
Aquellos documentos que Ud. encuentre mientras realiza una investigación genealógica italiana –tanto en registros originales como microfilmados- variarán según la región y el período de que se trate. Un acta del registro bautismal correspondiente al rito católico bizantino del siglo XVII en Sicilia, es probable que incorpore elementos griegos, latinos y sicilianos. La mayoría de los registros parroquiales está escrita en latín o italiano, y se necesita cierto grado de conocimientos y práctica para obtener transcripciones y traducciones fidedignas.

En la presentación del árbol genealógico se emplean dos formatos. El tradicional agnado (línea paterna), que centra el linaje en la transmisión sanguínea paterna (padre, abuelo, bisabuelo, etc.). Esto puede incluir colaterales (hermanos) en algunas generaciones, pero -excepto por el cónyuge- cada individuo mencionado será de la misma familia y llevará el mismo apellido. En el formato “seize quartier” (multilineal) preferido por muchos genealogistas americanos, todo el linaje aparece indicado en cada una de las generaciones, es decir, aparecen padre y madre de cada ancestro, “ad infinitum”. Por lo general resulta que las genealogías trazadas por línea paterna (patrilineales) son más profundas que las multilineales.

Origen de los documentos
En algunos casos es posible obtener certificados o fotocopias de documentos de apoyo tales como actas de bautismo o de nacimiento. A menudo, no obstante, esto es impracticable o aún imposible, especialmente en lo relacionado con anotaciones originales en archivos italianos. ¿Porqué? Bien puede ocurrir que no se disponga de una fotocopiadora o sencillamente estar prohibido fotografiar material archivado. Otras veces se debe al simple inconveniente que representa para un recargado sacerdote o un funcionario registral, escribir numerosos certificados destinados a satisfacer las demandas de los investigadores genealógicos. En estas circunstancias puede ser mejor solicitar documentos de apoyo respecto de unas pocas actas que más puedan interesarle o que sean más importantes para el logro de su propósito.

Which conditions may have an effect - positive or negative - on your Italian family history project. The following insights, based on many years of experience in Italy, pertain to factors that have very little to do with Italian genealogy per se, but involve vast cultural differences that influence archival access, documentation and research progress. Research conducted in Italian records (such as microfilms) outside Italy does not bring the researcher into direct contact with these factors. However, the researcher who deals directly with those responsible for Italian records retained in Italy will probably encounter challenging conditions at some point. These involve, among others, factors such as negotiation for archival access, apathetic attitudes on the part of civil or church officials, and the lengthy delays imposed by these issues.

Because the few professional genealogists working in Italy frequently encounter such difficulties, it is occasionally necessary to advise a client of these matters. Typically, the Enlish-speaking Italian descendant who commimisions or conducts Italian genealogical research is simply unaware of the way state bureaucracy, governmental offices and the Roman Catholic church function in Italy. In reality, these Italian institutions differ considerably from their counterparts in North America, Australia or even the United Kindom. Despite perceptions fostered by the informational exchange made possible today by such means of communication as rapid travel, fax machines, the internet and CNN, Italy is not an American state where a different language happens to be spoken - regardless of the extent to which popular culture may attempt to convince us that all societies are essentially the same. The visitor to Italy who ventures far beyond the business suite or tourist trail will discover numerous cultural differences that can affect a genealogical research project. Two everyday examples described here will demonstrate that these differences are not limited to research procedures. Italians traditonally approach tasks in a lineal manner, wishing to complete one activity before beginning another. This differs from the American and British approach, in which somebody might engage in several tasks at the same time, eventually completing each. In an Italian clothing store, a clerk might tend to the needs of the first customer to arrive, continuing to assist him or her even though another customer in need of assistancne is waiting to be fitted. While an English clerk might excuse himself from the first task, at least for a moment, the Italian clerk might consider it rude to interrupt the first customer simply to ascertain the needs of another who arrived later. The implications are obvious; the second customer may have to wait for service.

Likewise, a manager working in his office on Friday might delay answering Thursday's correspondence while he tends to Tuesday's, the priority of each being ascribed as much according to time of arrival as to actual importance. This principle is frustrating when applied to such services as postal deliveries, which in Italy are notoriously unreliable.

The casual visitor to Rome or Florence might not encounter the attitudes described above, and international corporations based in Italy employ a more "American" strategy of scheduling. However, genealogical research is not conducted in a tourist or commercial environment, but rather in state archives, small town vital statistics offices, or old parish churches where traditional attitudes are still a fact of life.

Two customs are particularly alien to those outside Italy. One involves the offering of funds in compensation for such purely voluntary ("unofficial") favors as access provided to a private archive; Catholic parochial archives are "private" and a discreet but generous offering is usually expected to a smaller parish in return for archival access. Another practice is the "recommendation," which involves a person's having been referred by somebody known to the official whose assistance is sought. Both customs are often required by aged Southern pastors, whereas public officials at state archives would be offended by such gestures. This is not "bribery" or "nepotism;" in fact both practices - offerings and recommendation - date from the Middle Ages, when parochial churches were patronized by local aristocratic families. (Thus the notation "offering to facilitate parochial archival access" in the expense section of a clientïs invoice.) These are typical examples of traditional Italian social practices which foreingners sometimes view as "corrupt." Conversely, Italians cast a suspicious eye toward certain American practices which seem corrupt to Europeans-large political campaign contributions and high university tuitions rank among these.

Before considering some particular circumstances, it is worth mentioning that church and state (governmental) entities in Italy are not involved in the pursuit of genealogical research. That simply isnït their job. In general, they do not share the genealogistïs zeal to discover historical information, and they are not in any way obligated to assist him in this pursuit, to reply to his requests, or to allow him access to the necessary records. This means that success in this field depends in large measure upon whether the individuals responsible for the relevant archival materials are cooperative. Bewildered by the growing foreign interest in Italian genealogical information, and inundated by request for free assistance, more and more clerical and civil officials are becoming less and less cooperative, and it should be remembered that there are more immediate demands upon their time; municipal offices are understaffed and there is a dearth of priests in Italy, as elsewhere. Even scheduling an appointment to research is often difficult.

Postal Requests for Certificates.
In many cases, especially where a precise name is provided and an exact date is known, a vital statistics official of pastor will reply to a request vided and an exact date is known, a vital statistics official or pastor will reply to a request made by mail for one or two certificates of baptism, birh, marriage, etc. In other cases, repeated requests or a query by telephone will be necessary in order to receive a response. This is one of the reasons for which professional genealogists charge what seem like inflated rates for this service. Despite what a few "professional" genealogists may imply, neither an overworked vital statistics official nor a busy pastor is legally obligated to respond to such a request, indeed, rigid privacy laws preclude the former from responding to certain requests made by third parties relating to persons who may still be living.

Parochial Archives.
Parochial archives contain information which in some cases might facilitate advancing a lineage into the 1400s; the earliest civil (vital statistics) records in Italy date only from the early 1800s, and census records provide only secondary information. Although pastors will sometimes allow direct access to the parochial archives in their care, they are not obligated to do so. A pastor may require his bishopïs authorization before permitting a genealogist archival consultation. Even then, he might not permit the researcher to consult registers directly. There are more dioceses in Italy than there are provinces, and bishops exercise ultimate authority over the parishes in their diocesan jurisdictions. In most instances, ther are no alternative sources for the information contained in parochial archives, and most of thes archival records will never be microfilmed by the LDS Church (Mormons) or the Italian state. For religious reasons, the Mormons are not generally allowed access to Catholic parochial records in Italy. (This results from an order issued by the Catholic Conference of Italian Bishops a few years ago.) Obtaining parochial archival access is quite time-consuming and often complicated, and may be influences by a pastorïs negative experience with discourteous amateur researchers. In some cases, a year or two can pass before a diocesan bishop decides to grant archival access for research purposes. This can impose a considerable-and frustrating-delay in completion of certain projects, for which a client might wait as long as two years or more. Often-especially for periods before 1800-the information available in parochial records simply does not exist elsewhere.

Photocopies and Certificates.
It is often possible to obtain photocopies of at least some source documents. However, pastors and other officials may prohibit photocopying, and some are reluctant to issue certificates to the researcher who request a dozen of more "proofs" of acts and dates. Photocopiers are often unavailable, and may contribute to the destruction of priceless records; photography with digital cameras and photocopying with portable scanner-copiers might not be permitted. Increasingly, therefore, genealogists provide page and reference numbers in lieu of certificates and photocopies.

Time.
As you may have inferred, the greatest difficulty posed by a genealogical research project conducted in Italy relates to time. When records exist, profound lineages can be established. Yet, the delays imposed by bureaucracy in matters involving genealogical research are formidable even under the best of circumstances. Patience is a virtue well-suited to this field.

Investigative and genealogical research pertaining to adopted ancestors or those ancestors born outside marriage presents particular challenges. While each case is unique, certain generalities can be considered based upon the nature of social conditions, as well as available records. For the most part, we shall consider such generalities as related to civil (vital statistics) records, as opposed to church records (parochial acts of baptism, marriage, etc.). Historical topics relate to births from circa 1810 to circa 1860; subsequent births will be said to be contemporary, births in the twentieth century being considered investigative cases rather than genealogical research projects per se.

Before embarking on any project involving an adoptive ancestor or one born outside marriage, it is important that the researcher acknowledge and comprehend several factors. From 1860 until 1929, the Italian state (i.e. the Kingdom of Italy) did not recognize Catholic marriages. Although it is true that both ecclesiastical and civil marriages were performed for most spousal unions in certain parts of Italy (such as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) in the decades before 1860, the Kingdom of Italy refused to recognize ecclesiastical marriages altogether. This means that an act of birth from, for example, 1875, might refer to a child as the son of "an unwed mother" who in fact was married in church but not at the town hall. Terms of one of the Lateran Treaties granted retroactive state recognition of these ecclesiastical marriages in 1929. Therefore, such acts must be confirmed by consultation of parochial records.

Hearsay may provide certain general information, but its legitimate research value usually correlates in some way (often inversely) to its social value. For example, an unwed mother might have claimed, perhaps long after her child's birth and far away from the locality where she resided when she gave birth, that the natural father was a local aristocrat; families often perpetuated such stories to salvage the dignity of both mother and child. The genealogist, however, would require more than a merely circumstantial "allegation" of paternity in such a case--for example, a formal act of recognition made by the natural father before the local vital statistics registrar.

An act of recognition would not have "legitimized" such a child for purposes such as succession to a title of nobility, though it may have allowed him, if only under very particular conditions, to inherit certain other paternal property, but in any event a married man would not likely consent to acknowledge publicly that he had committed adultery or fornication. The principle of legitimacy relates to crown (statutory) and church (canon) laws too complex to be described in detail here. Illegitimacy in Italy has never been as rigidly defined as in English law, which distinguishes, for example, between "bastards" and "adulterine bastards." Canon law formerly dictated that only legitimately-born men could be ordained to the priesthood, but this condition is no longer required for ordination. Rigid privacy laws prohibit direct consultation of contemporary (post-1910) vital statistics records, or any such records that have not been deposited with a provincial state archive.

Historical Cases
Into the nineteenth century, foundlings were often given surnames which actually indicated their illegitimacy. Proietti meant "cast out," Trovato literally meant "foundling," and D'Ignoti "of unknown" parents. Esposito derived directly from the Latin ex positum (literally "of this place") which appeared in some acts of baptism of foundlings. Legislation passed in 1928 outlawed the practice of assigning such children surnames indicative of their illegitimacy or abandonment, but surnames of some sort still had to be given to these children. These were sometimes the surnames of royal and noble families, but more often they were toponymic (geographical) in nature or alluded to the day, month or season of the child's birth (i.e. Sabato, Maggio, Primavera, and so forth).
An act of birth referring to an infant's paternity as "unknown" was normally necessary if the mother was unwed and the natural (biological) father had not come forth to recognize the child. Reference to "unknown" maternity was more frequent in the cases of complete abandonment of infants; this doesn't necessarily imply that all such infants were born to unwed parents. Where this kind of declaration was made by a midwife, it is reasonable to presume that she knew the identify of the woman whose baby she helped to deliver. It is presumed that the mother declaring the birth of her own illegitimate child knew who fathered the baby.

The texts of acts of baptism usually indicated "legitimate and natural" children of listed parents, and "natural" progeny of a single parent (usually the mother) or unknown parents.

Acts of recognition may be contained in particular registers covering a number of years, or they may be found in , which may also include adoptions and sundry legal acts relating in some way to vital statistics. It should be observed that atti diversi registers are not dedicated exclusively to adoptions and unwed births. In some localities, there are particular registers dedicated exclusively to proietti, or foundlings. Most frequently, acts of births regarding to foundlings or children born to unwed mothers were filed in the same registers as other births.

Contemporary Cases
After 1860, civil acts of birth were instituted throughout Italy, whereas previously they were kept only in certain regions or were attached to acts of baptism. In general, acts of birth and marriage after 1860 provide far less genealogically useful information than will be found in acts issued prior to that date.
In considering this period, it is worth noting that Italian orphanages traditionally were sponsored by the religious orders, and therefore answered to the church before the state. Very few of their archives have been preserved for consultation, and in the event usually do not provide the explicit information (such as parentage) that facilitates lineal research. However, many children were placed in orphanages who were not "orphans" in the most traditional sense. For example, a man whose wife died might place his children in an orphanage even though they were no longer infants (for instance, children around the age of ten years).

In the event an infant were placed for adoption (for example, by a young unwed mother) after his birth was registered, the birth record itself might include parentage, or at least indicate maternity. However, direct consultation of such acts, which may be prohibited even to most vital statistics personnel, is usually impossible, and only a "simple" birth certificate (without indication of parentage) normally will be issued. In fact, most birth certificates issued in Italy today, and all those required for official use such as school registration, are released on forms which do not even have a designated space for parents' names. This is likewise true for most contemporary baptismal certificates.

In certain cases, an infant was placed for adoption immediately, even before his birth was registered. In such cases, the birth records would contain less information.

Twentieth-century adoptions, including many of those processed after 1946, have often been undertaken through various Catholic agencies; this included newborns as well as children resident in orphanages, and until the 1970s some such adoptions were "international" (i.e. Italian-born children placed with overseas couples). Certain information pertinent to such adoptions would be retained by the agencies (many of which are now defunct) and, in most cases, by the local court responsible for registration of adoptions. Unfortunately for adoptees in search of their natural parents, such records are usually not made available for consultation.

Circumstantial Evidence and Investigations
Circumstantial factors must be considered objectively in cases involving foundlings, adoptees and children born outside marriage. In the rare instances when conclusions are drawn, these must be based upon a preponderance of the evidence, and all evidence must have been reviewed carefully. This may involve parochial records as well as civil ones, and will normally require direct consultation of records in Italy, as opposed to superficial review of microfilmed records.
Sociological factors and practices are extremely important in this particular branch of genealogical research, and bureaucratic procedures (regarding access to records, etc.) are relevant. In most cases, the research involving a project of this nature should be entrusted to a professional genealogist based in Italy who is experienced in investigations and studies of this kind. Especially in contemporary cases concerning living persons, such investigations may necessitate the application of certain particular strategies and tactics which have not been described herein.

The most important factor to consider in the development of profound lineages is the availability of records. In many instances, the records that would facilitate such extensive pedigrees simply don't exist. In other cases, however, these records exist and may even be accessible, but first you have to know what you're looking for and how to interpret it once you've found it..

In general, source records available to the researcher tracing a lineage for the period before circa 1500 are not the same as those one consults for more modern and contemporary projects. Since genealogists usually start nearer the present and work backwards, let's consider sixteenth-century records and methods first. A lineage from circa 1700 to circa 1500 is established with parochial records (primarily acts of baptism, marriage and death, the church census record known as the stato delle anime and perhaps a few records of confirmations or offerings) and the occasional census (catasto or rivello), notary or military record. For the period before 1500 there are rarely any parochial records preserved, although, contrary to popular belief, these were kept in some parishes prior to the Council of Trent (1545). Likewise, there are very few census records preserved from the sixteenth century.

If the records consulted for medieval genealogical projects differ considerably from those employed in modern research projects, it is logical that research strategy itself will differ somewhat. This is worth explaining before we proceed. Modern research is essentially methodical in nature because most of the records consulted are "statistical." This kind of research might be said to be "quantitative." This is not to imply that insight and strategy do not play a role in modern research; they certainly do. However, a search through lists or registers is not overwhelmingly difficult for the trained genealogist if he can comprehend old Italian or, in some instances, Latin or a local dialect. Research in medieval sources may be said to be "qualitative," and often provides sketchier ancestral information requiring greater conjectural and contextual knowledge because it does not usually lead to the precise generation-by-generation lineages constructed in modern research projects. One might instead discover a probable remote forebear without establishing his precise line of ascent from a more recent one. It is here that circumstantial evidence plays a greater role than in the research of most modern lineages, but this should not be construed to imply that speculation is the order of the day; historical and sociological knowledge are essential if any degree of accuracy is to be achieved.

The genealogist, for example, may have to conduct a survey to determine the approximate statistical frequency (number) of persons bearing a certain surname in a particular locality in the sixteenth century in order to determine the likelihood of a connection between one of these persons and a person bearing the same surname in the same locality a century earlier.

Medieval records present far greater challenges even to the most astute genealogical scholars. A particular aspect of this research to be aware of is that, by and large, it relates to aristocratic families rather than ordinary ones. However, this does not always imply nobility per se. While many people entertain the perception of noble families as being 'ancient" ones, the simple fact is that most titled families known to us today became ennobled (titled) not during the Middle Ages but in the modern era (i.e. after 1500). Many families of the minor (untitled) aristocracy that flourished before 1500 were important enough to figure in local events during the late medieval period, even though their descendants may have been less prominent during the course of latter centuries. (This is true not only of the untitled aristocracy of what is now Italy, but of the landed gentry of England and the sczlachta of Poland as well.)

An example of this historical development is the Scannapieco family, which by 1700 was prominent enough to be listed among the noble families of Nocera, even though they were never titled and therefore were not to be found in standard heraldic armorials. Following lengthy modern research, consultation of the archive of the nearby Abbey of Cava de Tirreni led to discovery of a manuscript of 1118 describing a land grant made to the Church by a man referred to as "Scannapecus" who was probably a forebear of the Scannapieco family resident in the area today. One observes that there were few references in these records to the titled families that were prominent in the region in more recent times.

Medieval records fall into numerous categories, a few of which we'll describe here.

Monastic or other church records of offerings, land donations and other transactions (sometimes referred to as "tabulations") are preserved in various archives. In some cases, particularly when the abbey itself no longer exists, these may have been deposited with the provincial archive of state or, if the monastery was in the former Papal State, perhaps in the Vatican Apostolic Archive. In general, such records date from the Longobard and Norman rule of Italy around the eleventh century, and may refer to local events considered noteworthy, mentioning local persons.

Medieval notarial records of such matters as land transfers or wills may be available for some localities. As with modern records of this type, acts are catalogued, if at all, by the name of the notary, who might have notarized an act in any one of various localities. This means that there is no clear initial indication of which notary might have notarized a particular act, since jurisdictions were not very localized.

Feudal records typically relate to taxes rendered to the Crown or levied by feudatories, or rents collected from land tenants. There also exist certain rolls which list feudatories and their military or economic service rendered to the Crown, as well as rolls of knights, archers, armorers, et al.

Heraldic records usually do not relate to coats of arms, but to such matters as petition for entry into the Order of Malta, which required genealogical proof of nobility. In such petitions, one might discover a medieval pedigree.

Royal, ministerial or episcopal decrees and circulars and chronicles sometimes mention certain individuals and their role in particular events.

Geographical and agricultural records may provide information that could indicate emigration patterns and lifestyles. Good or bad harvests, drought, war and other factors can be considered in this manner. It may be necessary to visit the family's locality of residence to better assess these developments.

Unfortunately, Italian genealogical authors do not speak with a unified voice when it comes to research strategies, and many do not possess a genuine knowledge of Italian history --hence the redundant repetition of the Garibaldi myth and many similar misconceptions--, some of which may adversely influence the family historian's perspective. An example of this is the impression that the Italian North was always wealthier than the South, and that this economic disparity prompted millions of southerners to emigrate. In fact, Naples was the most prosperous and populous of the Italian cities until its annexation to the new Kingdom of Italy in 1860. The second wealthiest Italian city of that era was not Rome, Turin or Milan, but Palermo. It was partly because of the North's relative poverty that most Italians to emigrate before circa 1870 were from northern regions. Around that period, the artificially bolstered economy of the Kingdom of Italy began to favor the North at the expense of the South, and by 1890 most emigrants were from the South, which by then was less industrialized than the North.

History and Culture in Your Genealogy
As you begin to research your Italian roots, it is worth visiting your local bookstore and public library to obtain a few books that will aid your efforts at placing your ancestors into their proper historical context. Medieval and modern history are most important, and highly recommended. No single work is perfect, but many are worth reading. The books by Dennis Mack Smith are reliable, though they reflect some foreign biases. Sir Harold Acton authored some fine works on the Kingdom of Naples; those by Benedetto Croce on the same topic are a bit fanciful. John Julius Norwich and Steven Runciman wrote landmark works on medieval history. Giuseppe di Lampedusa’s The Leopard, though fictional, provides profound insights into nineteenth-century southern Italian society. Gerre Mangione and Gay Talese have written about the Italian immigrant experience in the United States, with extensive research in Italy. Luigi Barzini’s unsurpassed works on Italian attitudes are indispensable, and Claire Sterling’s book on organized crime is a virtual window into the attitudes which shaped today’s South. Works dealing with the Austrian Empire are invaluable to any study of Tirolean history; it is easier to learn about your ancestors’ lifestyles when you know more about the region where they lived. Don’t neglect local history, either. This provides information on the places where your ancestors lived, and even if your ancestors are not mentioned in a general history, they may have played a part in the history of their city or town. Accuracy in Italian genealogical research depends on many things, the most important of which is a knowledge of the Italian language. This enables you to interpret records more easily, and allows you to read Italian historical works that are not available in English translation. An evening course is an excellent way to start learning Italian. It is worth mentioning that a knowledge of regional dialects is sometimes useful, but most Italian records are written in [Tuscan] Italian and Latin. Nevertheless, regional considerations might argue your studying a language other than Italian: French for some Piedmontese records, German for certain Tirolean records, etc.

Ethnology is the comparative social science that examines such things as customs, clothing, religion, cuisine, music and language. It distinguishes Italians from Japanese, and Americans from Australians. Because "Italy" has existed as a nation state only since circa 1860, ethnological factors also serve to distinguish Tuscans from Sicilians, Lombards from Calabrians, and Sardinians from Apulians. Ethnology is what makes your Piedmontese ancestors Piedmontese, and your Sicilian ancestors Sicilian. The way your ancestors worshipped, dressed, worked, and named their children reflect ethnological characteristics. Ethnological norms help us to know the remote ancestors we could never meet. These generalities are not "stereotypes".

Yes, stereotypes certainly exist, but many of these relate to factors other than history. For example, there exists a stereotype of Italians as having dark hair and eyes, and "olive" complexions, as though blond-haired, blue-eyed Italians were anomalous. In fact, there are many Italians who have light eyes and blond or red hair --especially in the South, which in the Middle Ages was ruled by Longobards and Normans who bore these physical traits. Another frequent stereotype is the premise that all Italian immigrants in the Americas were impoverished or illiterate. While many certainly were victims of such conditions, many others were solidly middle-class (skilled craftsmen, merchants, et al.); some may have been perceived as "illiterate" simply because they couldn’t read or write English. Corollary to this misperception is the stereotype of nineteenth-century Italians as landless peasants, when in fact most families owned a house and at least a small parcel of land; we know this because census and land records (known as catasti and rivelli in Italian) dating back to the sixteenth century are full of references to the land holdings of ordinary Italians.

However, in the interest of discouraging what are perceived as "negative" stereotypes of Italians, certain ethnic Italian organizations (outside Italy) prefer to foster their own notions of what constitutes "Italian" identity, and their ideas do not always reflect historical or sociological fact. The Italian monarchy, the Mafia, the Pact of Steel, and silver-haired Italian octogenarian widows dressed in black are just a few of the realities that the more outspoken members of some of these organizations would like to see banished from the Italian historical landscape. Don’t let them banish genuine Italian culture from your family history project, and don’t let them tell you who or what your Italian ancestors were!

Getting Started With Domestic Records
Unlike most historical disciplines, genealogical research usually commences in the present and works backward toward the past. If your ancestors have lived outside Italy for a few generations, you must establish your Italian-born ancestor's precise date and place of birth or marriage in Italy if you wish to proceed to establish a lineage. Along the way, you might discover other interesting information pertaining to their settlement in a new country. However, your primary objective should be to determine accurate biographical details that will facilitate research in Italian records. You may already know where and when the Italian ancestor was born. If so, immigration information may still be interesting as family historical knowledge. Before you consult microfilmed immigration records, old census records and steamship passenger lists, question older family members regarding details of your ancestors lives in Italy. Their recollections may not be accurate in every case, but fundamental information relating to geography could save you a lot of time and effort. It is also worth knowing where an ancestor was naturalized.

Introduction to Italian Records
Since much has been written about various notary, census and military records, even if some of it is in serious error, it is necessary to clarify the extent to which the genealogist should rely upon these documents. The primary records to be consulted in Italian genealogical research are acts of birth, baptism and marriage. Acts of death, though they may be considered "primary" records, are less reliable that acts of birth and marriage; atti diversi relate to extraordinary events, such as delayed registration of births. In most southern regions (the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), vital statistics acts date from the early 1800s, and this is also true of certain northern localities (such as Parma). Elsewhere (in most of the former Kingdom of Sardinia, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Papal States, etc.), such civil records were instituted only around 1860. Civil (vital statistics) records are invaluable; they typically include professions, approximate ages, and other information unavailable in the older primary records consulted by the genealogist-namely, parochial acts.
However, the absence of vital statistics records means that we must, in any event, rely upon parochial records for periods before circa 1800. Parochial census records (stato delle anime) rarely exist, local census records (stato di famiglia), when these exist, usually relate only to the late nineteenth century. Under most conditions, secondary records serve to provide particular details which might be lacking elsewhere, or to explain familial lifestyle (assets, professions, etc.). Secondary records (land and census assessments, military service records, heraldic-nobiliary records, notarial acts, etc.), when these exist, should be viewed as "primary records" only when the aforementioned parochial and vital statistics records do not exist, have not been preserved, or are otherwise unavailable for consultation.

Unavailable? Gaining access to parochial archives in Italy is notoriously difficult, and comparatively few such records will ever be microfilmed.. In some cases, obtaining access to these archives is a bureaucratic exercise requiring months or even years of negotiation. Inundated with postal requests for free genealogical assistance, overworked Italian pastors are reluctant to spend their time entertaining the needs of researchers, or even responding to most letters.

Certain vital statistics records have been microfilmed, and may be available to you through the auspices of the LDS Church (Mormons) via a family history center. Obviously, this presumes that you can read the records in question. Even if you can, the typical researcher must bridge the gap between the birth of an immigrant ancestor (circa 1890, for example) and the 1860s, the most recent period for which microfilmed vital statistics records are typically available. This may necessitate contacting the vital statistics office of your ancestor's home town for information that would facilitate such research. Although they are generally unwilling to conduct actual research, vital statistics officials might provide you with an extract of the act of birth (including parentage) of an ancestor if you furnish them with a precise name and date. Privacy laws preclude their issuing contemporary certificates (for persons who may still be living) to third parties.

In Italy, vital statistics and other records, for localities where these exist, may be consulted directly at a regional Archive of State, which is usually based in a provincial capital. However, you should speak some Italian if you hope to communicate with the archival staff, and you should ensure that the records of interest to you are retained at the archive in question. Remember that Italian hours and holidays differ from American ones.

Understanding Italian Records
A number of publications can assist you with research strategies and methods too detailed to be presented here. It is important that you read these critically, considering also the information acquired in other sources because, for some of the reasons described earlier, few of these publications present the degree of absolutely accurate, sound advice that applies to every Italian family history project. Moreover, each research project is unique. Information regarding historical facts of peripheral interest to genealogists is best sought in specialized works dealing with the seventeenth century, the Risorgimento (Unification Movement), and so forth. Among the misnomers in certain books on this topic are references to "Napoleonic records" and various other documents.

Transcription, Translation and Presentation
The documents you will encounter in Italian genealogical research --either in original or microfilm records-- vary by region and period. An act from a seventeeth-century Byzantine Rite Catholic baptismal register in Sicily might incorporate Greek, Latin and Sicilian elements. Most parochial records are written in Latin or Italian, and a degree of knowledge and practice is needed to render accurate transcriptions and translations.
Two formats are employed in the presentation of pedigrees. The traditional agnate (patrilineal) format concentrates on lineage through your father's father's father, etc. This may include collaterals (siblings) in some generations, but except for spouses every individual indicated will be of the same family and bear the same surname. In the seize quartier (multilineal) format, preferred by many American genealogists, every ancestral lineage is indicated in each generation; in other words, the father and mother of each ancestor, ad infinitum. Patrilineal genealogies are usually more profound than multilineal ones.

Source Documents
In some cases, it is possible to obtain certificates or photocopies of supporting documents such as acts of baptism or acts of birth. Often, however, this is either impractical or impossible, especially with original records in Italian archives. Why? A photocopier may be unavailable, or photography of archival materials may not be permitted. Sometimes it is simply inconvenient for an overworked pastor or vital statistics registrar to write numerous certificates for a genealogical researcher's needs. Under such circumstances, it is best to request supporting documents for a few acts which interest you most or are most important to your project.